Deep Learning–Based Detection of Early Renal Function Impairment Using Retinal Fundus Images: Model Development and Validation

Eugene Yu-Chuan Kang   ^{1, 2} , MD ;   Yi-Ting Hsieh   ³ , MD, PhD ;   Chien-Hung Li   ⁴ , MSc ;   Yi-Jin Huang   ⁴ , MSc ;   Chang-Fu Kuo   ^{2, 5} , MD, PhD ;   Je-Ho Kang   ⁶ , MD ;   Kuan-Jen Chen   ^{1, 2} , MD ;   Chi-Chun Lai   ^{1, 2} , MD ;   Wei-Chi Wu   ^{1, 2} , MD, PhD ;   Yih-Shiou Hwang   ^{1, 2} , MD, PhD

¹ Department of Ophthalmology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou Medical Center, Taoyuan, Taiwan

² College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan

³ Department of Ophthalmology, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan

⁴ Acer Healthcare Incorporated, New Taipei, Taiwan

⁵ Center for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou Medical Center, Taoyuan, Taiwan

⁶ Department of Nephrology, Yang Ming Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan