Automatic Kidney Image Segmentation During Robot-Assisted Partial Nephrectomy Using a Deep Learning Model Based on a Multiannotator Dataset: Model Development and Validation Study

Gaëlle Margue   ^{1, 2} , MD, MSc ;   Kilian Chandelon   ^{3, 4} , PhD ;   Maxime Pattou   ^{1, 2} , MD ;   Alice Pitout   ^{1, 2} , MSc, MD ;   Abderrahmane Khaddad   ¹ , MSc, MD ;   Federico Rubat-Baleuri   ^{1, 2} , MD ;   Julie Desternes   ³ , MSc ;   Laura Richert   ⁵ , MD, PhD ;   Nicolas Bourdel   ^{3, 4, 6} , MD, PhD ;   Adrien Bartoli   ^{3, 4, 7} , PhD ;   Jean-Christophe Bernhard   ^{1, 2} , MD, PhD

¹ Department of Urology, Bordeaux University Hospital, Bordeaux, France

² Unit 1312, French National Institute of Health and Medical Research, I.CaRe, Bordeaux Institute of Oncology, Bordeaux, France

³ Surgical Augmented Reality, Clermont-Ferrand, France

⁴ French National Centre for Scientific Research and Université Clermont Auvergne, Joint Research Unit 6602, Endoscopy and Computer Vision Research Group, Institut Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, France

⁵ Research in Clinical Epidemiology and Public Health, European Clinical Trials Platform and Development–French Clinical Research Infrastructure Network, Bordeaux University Hospital, Bordeaux Population Health Research Center Unit 1219, Clinical Investigation Center–Clinical Epidemiology Unit 1401, University Bordeaux, French National Institute of Health and Medical Research, Institut Bergonié, Bordeaux, France

⁶ Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Clermont-Ferrand University Hospital, Clermont-Ferrand, France

⁷ Department of Clinical Research and Innovation, Clermont-Ferrand University Hospital, Clermont-Ferrand, France